A Critical Review of China's Mega-Infrastruce Project: The Three Gorges Dam

“I confirm that I completed this paper in accordance with the conduct set forth in the University’s Academic Integrity Code. I am aware that my paper will be entered into a plagiarism detection program that is integrated into Canvas, and I have not used AI tools (such as ChatGPT) to generate my paper in part or in full.”

Introduction

The Three Gorges Dam in China stands as the world’s largest hydroelectric facility and a symbol of both engineering ambition and global debate. Built across the Yangtze River, the dam was envisioned to prevent catastrophic floods, generate massive amounts of clean electricity and improve navigation along China’s longest river (Reuters, 2020; Hvistendahl, 2008). Since its conception, however, it has also raised significant environmental and social concerns, from the displacement of over a million people to ecosystem disruptions (International Rivers, 2013). This paper will examine the Three Gorges Dam through the lens of sustainable development’s three pillars (economic, environmental and social); in order to explore the motivations behind its construction, assess its mixed outcomes, and determine whether the project can be considered a long-term success.

Thesis: Although the Three Gorges Dam has contributed substantially to China's economic growth and energy security, its severe ecological consequences and deep social disruptions challenge its sustainability; offering crucial insights for the planning and execution of future mega-infrastructure projects.

Environmental Implications

From an environmental standpoint, the Three Gorges Dam is a clear example of a double-edged sword, a trade-off between clean energy and ecological damage. On the plus side, it generates massive amounts of low-carbon electricity, helping China reduce its reliance on coal and cut down on greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution. But these climate gains have come at a steep ecological cost.

The dam drastically altered the natural flow of the Yangtze River, transforming a long stretch into a vast reservoir that drowned entire ecosystems. Wildlife habitats disappeared underwater, and many species suffered as a result. Migratory fish, for example, lost access to critical spawning grounds, leading to sharp population declines. One of the most tragic losses was the Yangtze river dolphin, which was declared functionally extinct not long after the dam was completed. Other species, like the Chinese sturgeon and several unique local fish, have also seen their numbers plummet. Dozens of plant and animal species have been endangered or lost altogether, with scientists calling the dam “seriously damaging” to the river’s ecology.

Beyond biodiversity loss, the dam has triggered serious geological and hydrological side effects. The weight of the reservoir and the fluctuating water levels have caused frequent landslides on the steep slopes nearby, sometimes severe enough to require expensive reinforcements and even more displacement of local residents. There have also been reports of minor earthquakes in the area. Water quality has also taken a hit. In the reservoir, slow-moving waters can become stagnant, creating ideal conditions for occasional algal blooms that further strain the aquatic ecosystem.

In the end, while the Three Gorges Dam helps China meet its climate and energy goals, it has deeply disrupted the natural balance of one of the world’s great rivers. It’s a powerful example of how pursuing one environmental goal (renewable energy) can come at the expense of others like biodiversity and ecosystem health.

Bibliography

Al Jazeera (2020, August 21). “Water inside China’s Three Gorges Dam nears maximum levels.” Al Jazeera – Climate Crisis.

Encyclopædia Britannica. (n.d.). “Three Gorges Dam – History and controversy.” Encyclopædia Britannica Online.

Human Rights Watch. (1995). The Three Gorges Dam in China: Forced Resettlement, Suppression of Dissent and Labor Rights Concerns. HRW Asia Report.

Reuters. (2019, November 14). “Factbox: A history of China’s Three Gorges project.” Reuters News.

The Guardian. (2007, August 8). “Yangtze river dolphin driven to extinction.” The Guardian.

Zhao, L. (2023). “A Policy Review on Sustainability and the Three Gorges Dam in China.” Studies in Social Science & Humanities, 2(3), 28–36.

Origins and Objectives

The idea of building a dam across the Three Gorges of the Yangtze River isn’t new. After devastating floods in the region, Chinese leaders began to imagine how such a massive project could help tame the river. In the 1950s, Mao Zedong brought the idea back to the national spotlight, envisioning a grand dam that could both prevent future disasters and generate the electricity needed to power China’s growing ambitions. But while the vision was bold, the challenges were just as immense. The sheer scale of the dam, the enormous financial cost, and the risk of major environmental and social disruption kept the project on the drawing board for decades.

The Three Gorges Dam finally got the green light in 1992, during a period of major reforms in China. Premier Li Peng strongly backed the project, managing to push it through the National People’s Congress, though it wasn’t without controversy, as nearly a third of delegates either voted against it or abstained, a rare show of dissent. Construction began in 1994. Despite its scale, the project didn’t receive support from international lenders like the World Bank, who raised concerns about its environmental impact and human rights issues. Instead, the Chinese government and state-run banks took on the full financial burden. Officials defended the dam by pointing to three major goals: controlling the Yangtze’s devastating floods, generating huge amounts of hydroelectric power to drive economic growth, and boosting inland shipping to support regional development.

Conclusion

The Three Gorges Dam remains one of the most ambitious engineering projects in history. It undeniably powered economic growth, delivered massive amounts of clean energy and helped manage the Yangtze’s unpredictable floods. But the cost of these achievements has been high. The dam left a deep ecological footprint and uprooted the lives of millions, raising hard questions about who benefits and who bears the burden.

When measured across the three pillars of sustainability (economic, environmental and social) the dam’s legacy is deeply uneven. It may be an economic success, but it came at the expense of environmental degradation and profound human disruption.

To improve the project’s sustainability, planners should enhance community participation, enforce ecological protections, and implement decentralized, low-impact alternatives to reduce social and environmental harm.

In the end, the Three Gorges Dam teaches an important lesson: sustainable development isn’t just about building bigger and generating more. True progress means respecting ecosystems and protecting people, not just chasing power and profit. As we look to the future, especially in a world facing urgent climate and development challenges, megaprojects must aim higher; not just in scale, but in balance. Only by giving equal weight to environmental health and social justice, we can call a project truly sustainable.

Social Implications and Human Impact

The social impact of the Three Gorges Project has been vast and deeply mixed. To make way for the reservoir, between 1.2 and 1.4 million people were forced to leave their homes as more than 1,500 towns and villages disappeared underwater. The Chinese government described this as a necessary sacrifice for the greater good and promised better lives for those who were uprooted. In some areas, that promise was partly fulfilled. Many displaced residents were relocated to newly built cities on higher ground, with access to modern housing, better schools, healthcare and jobs that hadn’t been available in their old rural communities. Officials also point to improved flood control as a major social benefit, for example, during the severe floods of 2020, the network of Yangtze dams, including Three Gorges, reportedly helped prevent millions from needing to evacuate (Al Jazeera, 2020).

But those benefits tell only part of the story. For many, resettlement brought more hardship than opportunity. Countless families lost not only their homes and farmland, but also their community bonds and cultural roots. People were often relocated far from their ancestral land, severing social networks built over generations. Surveys later revealed that many resettled families (particularly older adults and farmers) received insufficient compensation, struggled with unemployment, and slipped deeper into poverty. Government programs offering job training and financial support often fell short of what was needed to help people truly rebuild their lives.

Viewed through the lens of sustainable development, the social pillar of the Three Gorges Dam is its most fragile. While the dam may have brought infrastructure and energy gains, the widespread displacement, cultural destruction, and uneven support for resettlers suggest that the social costs have been far greater than the benefits, especially for those who paid the highest price.

Economic Implications and Outcomes

The Three Gorges Dam has brought significant economic gains to China. With a massive installed capacity of 22,500 megawatts, it holds the title of the world’s largest power station, generating about 100 terawatt-hours of electricity each year. This shift has not only boosted the country’s energy security but also helped cut down on air pollution. The dam has also been a game-changer for transportation and trade along the Yangtze River. Thanks to a 600-kilometer reservoir and new ship locks, 10,000-ton freighters can now reach far inland cities like Chongqing, opening up new opportunities for trade and investment in China’s interior.

But these benefits have come at a high price. The total cost of the dam ballooned well beyond initial projections, exceeding $30 billion. On top of that, corruption further undercut the project’s value: a 2007 audit revealed that some funds meant for construction and resettlement were siphoned off by officials, leaving many displaced communities without the support they were promised.

The dam does generate vast amounts of electricity and has helped reduce routine flooding, but it hasn’t eliminated the threat entirely. In 2020, for example, intense rainfall forced emergency water releases to protect the dam, showing that extreme floods remain a real risk.

All things considered, the Three Gorges Dam has certainly powered economic growth and clean energy; but its steep costs, misuse of funds, and lingering flood risks make its economic success more complicated than it might first appear.